Astronomy is an ancient science in China. Mankind’s first record of an eclipse of the Sun was in China in 2136 BC. Since then, a deep respect for the sky emerged, which has had a repercussion on Chinese culture. China’s geographic location placed the country in a rather isolated position. It was surrounded by seas (e.g. the China South Sea and the Bohai Sea), mountains (e.g. the Himalayas) and deserts (e.g. the Gobi Desert). Foreign influence in China only began with the Mongol invasion in the 13^th century and greatly increased in the 17^th century, during the last imperial dynasty (the Qing), under the reign of the Manchu. Furthermore, China’s developed bureaucracy attained from quite early on a high level of perfection, which was so accurate that even nowadays astronomers rely on its records for scientific research.

If we trace back the origins of traditional Chinese astronomy, we can say that observations and offerings concerning the heavens go hand in hand, so that they helped each other forward. Nevertheless, they are two totally different elements, each with their specific historical circumstances.

During China’s entire history, emperors considered themselves as Sons of Heaven[1] and the imperial palace was regarded as a divine place. In the conceptions of the emperor’s government, astronomy could predict prosperity and misfortune and it was linked with heaven in a mysterious way (astrology). The cloths the emperor wore and even his movements could have had an effect on various predictions. However, astronomy was also an essential method to keep up to date and to correct the calendar.

The formulation of a better calendar than the previous period was a symbol that would indicate the emperor’s ability to rule the universe. This ability was regarded by the Chinese as an expression of the amount of virtue[2]. Astronomy’s special position, which was closely related to the might of the monarch, led inevitably to the monopolisation of this science by the imperial court. For a certain length of period, this was favourable for the astronomical science, but the situation gradually led to the support of the common people being dispensable. As a result astronomical books and instruments, such as armillary spheres, were the target of looting and destruction during each dynastic change or conquest of the throne.

Apart from the fact that emperors initially demanded little of astronomy, astrology and the formulation of calendars were relegated to purely formal tasks in later periods, particularly after the fall of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in the 14^th century. In the institutions that were responsible for the observation of the heavens, few real competent Chinese scientists remained active, which resulted in the gradual decline of traditional astronomy.

China was famous for its precise astronomical observations, long before similarly accurate observations were made in other civilisations. To attain such accurate records they even had to build revolutionary instruments, such as Zhang Heng’s Hydraulic Armillary Sphere and Guo Shoujing’s Simplified Instrument. The flowering of astronomical instrument building began when foreign influences emerged in the 13^th century and reached its climax when the Jesuits (e.g. Ferdinand Verbiest) came to China. Nevertheless the Chinese were very sceptical. They didn’t allow foreigners to dominate their tradition, especially not when it came to religious beliefs. But they did appreciate that new scientific ideas could improve their knowledge. More frequently it happened that the foreigners traded their culture in return for Chinese culture.

Today the records of Chinese astronomers are of extreme importance in the astronomical research of cyclic phenomena such as eclipses, the appearance of comets and rare appearances, such as stellar explosions (supernovas). The Chinese were very careful observers of astronomical phenomena such as sunspots and the four largest satellites of the planet Jupiter, which is even more remarkable. Both phenomena were probably discovered one thousand and possibly two thousand years before the invention of the telescope. Only the persistence to reach the limits of what the naked eye can see, could attain such results. This kind of effort merits our humble admiration.

These realisations are not only of historical importance, but are also essential for modern research. The achievements of ancient Chinese astronomy (e.g. to stress the usage of the equatorial coordinates and the invention of the equatorial torquetum[1]) have certainly contributed to astronomy. The reasons why the Chinese had such progressive insights, made accurate recordings and even propagated ideas such as the infinity of the universe[2], were not the ones contemporary astronomy would accept. However, if we make a comparison between the evolution of science and climbing a mountain, then we must take into account that there are many different ways to get to the top. What China has contributed to the universal culture and what it implies for modern research give us plenty to think about.

The development of Chinese astronomy goes way back in time and constitutes a key passage to various disciplines. Hence, it contains the common source for every kind of research in Chinese history, science and culture.